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Romance Gender Benders:Gender of Nouns in the Romance languagesby Carl Stoll | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Introduction
This list tries to tread the narrow line between completeness and prolixity. I have generally avoided the obscure. Nonetheless, I am certain to have omitted important items. This is inevitable, since there is no foolproof way to detect gender differences among cognates. The English equivalents are very succinct, and often fail to explain all meanings. The following list is a succession of tetrads. An example of a tetrad is:
It is called a tetrad ("group of four") because only 4 languages are at issue here; Latin and English are presented merely as explanatory elements. The four nouns in each tetrad are equivalents, that is to say synonyms of each other. As a rule they are also cognates of one another. This list contains about two hundred tetrads. The tetrads are grouped by heading, which shows the idealized form or model of the tetrads included. The above tetrad is to be found under the heading FFMF, which means that the cognate in question is masc. in French and fem. in Port., Span. & Ital. The four nouns in each tetrad are equivalents or almost equivalents, that is to say synonyms, and generally they are also cognates of one another. Sometimes there is no equivalent cognate. Then special rules apply: The letter X instead of an M or F in a heading indicates that there is no commonly used equivalent cognate in the language in question. For example, the tetrad
has form XMFM. The X means that in Port. there is no commonly used derivative of Lat. dactylus. Note that the Port. equivalent of dactylus is between brackets to denote that it is not a cognate of the other elements. In such cases the non-equivalent or false cognate may be listed, but underlined to show it is not equivalent to the other cognates. The letter A (for "ambiguous") is inserted into a heading when a word has ambiguous gender. For example, the tetrad
is MAFM; the A indicates that in Span. the derivative of mare can be either masc. or fem.
The heading for this tetrad is FFFA. The A reflects the fact that in Ital. there are two different cognates of similar meaning and different gender. The introduction of the A category makes this article a compendium of gender ambiguity in all four Romance languages here studied. Additional tetrads are presented which need not display gender disparity; their purpose is to warn of homographs and other items introduced for purposes of comparison. Such tetrads are printed in italics. They appear after the tetrad to which they refer. Likewise, notes which refer to an entire tetrad, or several, are printed in italics in the body of the text. Suffixes and other noun endings Unless otherwise noted, in Port., Span. & Ital.:
Unless otherwise noted, Latin nouns ending in -a are fem. (or neuter plural); nouns ending in -us are masc., and nouns ending in -um (plural -a) are neuter. Nonetheless, for purposes of clarity, the gender marker is usually left in, except where space is lacking. Noun suffixes like the cognates of -ation, -ance, etc. are associated with certain genders in the Romance languages. On the whole the gender pertaining to a given suffix is uniform among all four languages, to wit FFFF or MMMM.Example: FFFF
The causes of gender disparity There appear to be four main causes of gender disparity among Romance languages. The first three relate to suffixes. 1. Choice of a different suffix associated with another gender: Example:FFFM
The choice of suffix seems to be influenced by the period in the development of Latin during which the term is accepted into the Romance language in question. Thus, the suffix -mento, which is often preferred to -zione in Ital., seems to have been most popular in Low Latin. 2. Some languages use a suffix and others do not. These are the cases of Lat. caput (FFMM), rete (FFMF) and exterminium (MMFM). 3. One language associates a certain ending with a different gender than the other languages. There one suffix each in Port., Span. and French which is characteristically fem.1, while in the other three languages it is masc., to wit:
a. FMMM
Example:
b. MFMM
Example:
Example:
This refers only to the -eur ending when it is a suffix added to an adjective (chaud - la chaleur). It does not refer to the noun consisting of -eur attached to a verb, which denotes the performer of some action, like professeur or éclaireur. There are certain other nouns ending in -eur which are masc., to wit le bonheur and honneur (m). 4. The fourth explanation does not point to suffixes, but rather to gender drift. In the same way as dialects and languages drift away from each other in terms of meaning of cognates, phonology, vocabulary and grammar, they drift randomly away from each other in the gender of their nouns. Sometimes this is encouraged by the fact that the Latin etymon is of ambiguous gender, as in serpens (m/f) (FFMM) "snake" or margo (m/f) (FAFM) "edge, shore." The asterisk * before a Latin word means that it is a word from mediaeval Latin, not classical Latin like the others. In some cases the * word exists in classical Latin, but with a different meaning from mediaeval Latin, and it is the latter meaning which is preserved in the cognates. + before a word indicates that it is the principal equivalent in that language. Example:
The +s mean that in Port. & Span. pavor is not the principal word meaning "fear"; rather it is medo/miedo. However, in French & Ital., the pavor cognates are the principal word meaning "fear." G marks the genitive of a Latin noun. The genitive is indicated when the Romance cognates appear to be derived from this case.
FMMM
This is an oft-repeated pattern, since the -agem ending is always fem. in Port., whereas its cognates are always masc. [except for cartilagem (FMMF)]. But:AMMM
MFFF
MFMM
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| o nariz | la nariz | le nez | il naso | naris (f), nasus, nasum | nose | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| o sangue | la sangre | le sang | il sangue | sanguis (m) | blood | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| o sal | la sal | le sel | il sale | sal (n) | salt | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| o sinal | la señal | le signal | il segnale | signum | sign | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| o espinafre | la espinaca | épinards (m) | i spinaci | spinacea | spinach | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| o legume | la legumbre | le légume | il legume3 | legume (n) | vegetable; legume | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| o capuz | la capucha | le capuce | il cappuccio | [cucullus] | hood (over head) |
he purpose of this list is to aid learners of a second Romance language avoid gender confusions with their first Romance language. Mutatis mutandis, the same goes for third and fourth languages. The list covers Portuguese, Spanish, French and Italian, in geographical order from west to east on the map of Europe. The purpose is didactic, so logical elegance is mostly sacrificed to practical considerations.| o moral | la moral | le moral | il morale | -- | morale |
|
a moral |
la moral |
la moral |
la morale |
-- |
ethics, morals |
|
a moral |
la moral |
la moral |
la morale |
-- |
moral of a story |
FMFF
| a equipe, a equipa | el equipo | équipe (f) | équipe (f), [+la squadra] | --- | team (of people) |
| a insônia | el insomnio | insomnie (f) | insonnia (f) | insomnia (f) | insomnia |
| a origem | el origen | origine (f) | origine (f) | origo (f), G originis | origin |
| a pálpebra | el párpado | la paupière | la palpebra | palpebra (f) | eyelid |
| a sentinela | el centinela4 | la sentinelle | la sentinella | [custos] | sentry |
| a toupeira | el topo | la taupe | la talpa5 | talpa (f) | mole (small mammal) |
| o canalha6 | el canalla7 | la canaille | la canaglia | [sclestus] | scoundrel |
| Tunisia (f) | Túnez (m) | la Tunisie | la Tunisia | -- | Tunisia |
MMFM
| o apóstrofo | el apóstrofo | apostrophe (f) il apostrofo | apostrophus | apostrophe (punctuation) | |
| o aspargo, (o espargo | el espárrago | asperge (f) | asparago (m) | asparagus | asparagus |
| o clarinete | el clarinete | la clarinette | il clarinetto | -- | clarinet |
| o contágio | el contagio | la contagion | il contagio | contagium, contagio (f) | contagion |
| o dente | el diente | la dent | il dente | dens (m), G dentis | tooth |
| o extermínio | el exterminio | extermina tion (f) | lo sterminio | exterminium | extermination |
| o figo | el higo | la figue | il fico | ficus (f) | fig |
| o fresco, o afresco | el fresco | la fresque | affresco (m), il fresco (rare) | -- | fresco (painting) |
| o armário | el armario | l'armoire (f) | l'armadio (m) | armarium8 | armoire, wardrobe |
| o punhado | el puñado | la poignée | il pugno, [manciata] | pugnus, [manipulum] | handful |
|
o punho |
el puño |
le poing |
il pugno |
pugnus |
fist |
|
o punho |
empuñadura, el puño |
la poignée |
[manico, |
manicula, maniglia] |
grip (handle) |
|
o punho |
el puño |
le poignet |
[polsino] |
-- |
cuff (end of sleeve) |
|
o pulso |
[muñeca] |
[le poignet] |
[polso] |
? |
wrist |
| o licor | el licor | la liqueur | il liquore | *liquor (m) | liqueur (drink) |
This tetrad (liquor) is but one of dozens of cases in which the Fr. suffix -eur is fem. See Introduction.
| o planeta | el planeta | la planète | il pianeta | planeta (f) | planet |
| o óleo, [o azeite]9 | el óleo,10 [el aceite] | huile (f) | olio (m) | oleum | oil |
| o hectare | la hectárea | hectare (m) | ettaro (m) | -- | hectare |
| o absinto | el ajenjo | absinthe (f) | assenzio (m) | absinthium | wormwood, absinthe |
| o amuleto | el amuleto | amulette (f) | amuleto (m) | amuletum | amulet, charm |
| o anagrama | el anagrama | anagramme | il anagramma | -- | anagram |
| o arabesco | el arabesco | arabesque (f) | il (a)rabesco |
-- |
arabesque |
| o ébano | el ébano | ébène (f) | il èbano | ebenum | ebony |
| o epigrama | el epigrama | épigramme (f) | il epigramma | epigramma | epigram, inscription |
| o epitáfio | el epitafio | épitaphe (f) | il epitaffio | epitaphium | epitaph |
| o ídolo | el ídolo | idole (f) | il idolo | idolum | idol |
| o idílio | el idilio | idylle (f) | il idillio | idyllium | idyll |
| o insulto | el insulto | insulte (f) | insulto (m) | [contumelia] | insult |
| o ouvido | el oído | ouïe (f) | udito (m) | auditum | sense of hearing |
| o polvo | el pulpo | la poulpe11, [+la pieuvre] | il polpo | pulpum | octopus |
| o topázio | el topacio | la topaze | il topazio | topazium | topaz |
| o viscondado | el vizcondado | la vicomté | il viscontato | -- | viscounty |
| Egito (m) | Egipto (m) | l'Egypte (f) | l'Egitto (m) | Aegyptus | Egypt |
| o minuto | el minuto | la minute | il minuto | -- | minute |
| o cinturão, o cinto | el cinturón, el cinto & la cintura* | la ceinture,* le ceinturon | il cinturone, il cinto, | cinctus | belt |
All the above words mean "belt"; words marked with * also mean "waist"; words marked & mean only "uniform belt."
| o período | el periodo, | la période12 | il periodo | periodus | period (of time) |
| o método | el método | la méthode | il metodo | methodus | method |
| o ânodo, o anódio | el ánodo | anode (f) | il anodo | -- | anode |
| o cátodo, o catódio | el cátodo | la cathode | il catodo | -- | cathode |
Each of the above last four tetrads has a fem. French noun ending in -ode. Note, however, that épisode and exode are both masc.
MMMM
| o êxodo | el éxodo | exode (m) | esodo (m) | exodus | exodus |
MAMM
| o visto | la visa, el visado13 | le visa | il visto | -- | visa |
| o açúcar | el/la azúcar14 | le sucre | lo zucchero | saccharum | sugar |
FFMF
| a cifra15 | la cifra | le chiffre | la cifra | [numerus] | digit |
| a corrente | la corriente | le courant | la corrente | [vis fluminis] | current |
| a aeronave | la aeronave | aeronef (m) | aeronave (f) | aero + navis (f) aeroplane | |
| a idade | la edad | age (m) | età (f) | aetas (f), G aetatis | age |
|
a anchova, a enchova, [biqueirão] |
la anchoa, [+el boquerón] | anchois (m) | acciuga (f) | apiuva (m) | anchovy |
| a antracite | la antracita | anthracite (m) | antracite (f) | -- | anthracite |
| a rede | la red | le réseau16 | la rete | rete (n) | net, network |
| a salvação | la salvación | le salut | la salvezza | salus (f) | salvation |
| a tíbia | la tibia | le tibia | la tibia | tibia (f) | tibia, shinbone |
| a zebra | la cebra | le zèbre | la zebra | -- | zebra |
| a apologia | la apología | apologue (f) | apologia (f) | apologia (m) | defense, eulogy |
| a epiderme | la epidermis | épiderme (m) | epidermide (f) | epidermide (m) epidermis | |
| a insígnia | la insignia | insigne (m) | insegna (f) | insignia (n.pl.) | insignia |
| a libélula | la libélula | le libelle | la libellula | -- | dragonfly |
| a mimosa | la mimosa | le mimosa | la mimosa | -- | mimosa |
| a orquestra | la orquesta | orchestre (m) | orchestra (f) | orchestra17 | orchestra |
| a úlcera | la úlcera | ulcère (m) | ulcera (f) | ulcus (n), G ulceris | ulcer |
| a delícia | la delicia | le délice | la delizia | deliciae (f.pl) | delight, pleasure |
| a ossatura | la osamenta | ossements (m.pl) | ossatura (f) | ossa corporis (n.pl) | skeleton? |
| a prédica | la prédica | le prêche | la predica | -- | sermon |
| Dinamarca (f) | Dinamarca (f) | le Danemark | la Danimarca | -- | Denmark |
| a raiva | la rabia | le rage | la rabbia | rabies (f) | rage; rabies |
| a fênix | el fénix | le phénix | la fenice | phoenix (m) | phoenix |
| a moratória | la moratoria | le moratoire | la moratoria | -- | moratorium |
| a sauna |
la sauna (Mex. el sauna) |
le sauna | la sauna | -- | sauna |
| a águia | águila (f) | aigle (m) | aquila (f) | aquila | eagle |
| a sorte | la suerte | le sort | la sorte | sors (f), G sortis | luck, fate, lot |
|
a sorte, [a espécie, a classe] |
la suerte, la clase]+tipo |
la sorte, [le genre, le type] |
[la specie, genero, tipo] |
sors (f), G sortis |
sort, kind, type |
MMMF
| o ar | el aire (m) | air (m) | aria (f) | aer (m) | air |
|
a ária |
el aria (f), el aire (m) |
aria (f), air (m) |
aria (f) |
[canticum] |
aria |
| o colar | el collar | le collier | la collana18 | collare (m) | necklace |
| o verniz | el barniz | le vernis | la vernice | -- | varnish |
| +o imposto, [taxa] | el impuesto | +impôt (m.), [la taxe] | +imposto, [tassa] | impositum | tax |
| o condado | el condado | le comté | la contea | -- | county |
| o domingo | el domingo | le dimanche | la domenica | Dominica | Sunday |
| o plástico | el plástico | le plastique | la plastica | -- | plastic |
MMMA
| o chocolate | el chocolate | le chocolat | il cioccolatto, la cioccolatta19 | -- | chocolate |
There follows a group of tetrads dominated by the Italian noun, whose plural is of ambiguous gender: in each case the fem. and plural forms differ in meaning from the masc. plural forms. In general, the fem. pl. forms have the root meaning of the word, while the masc. pl. words have derived meanings. Lat. cornus (MMFA) and cilium (MXMA) belong to the same group.
| o braço | el brazo | le bras | il braccio, pl. le braccia/i bracci | bracchium | arm (limb) |
| o dedo | el dedo | le doigt | il dito, pl. le dita/i diti | digitus | finger |
| o muro | el muro | le mur | il muro, pl. le mura/i muri | murus | wall |
FFFM
| a cômoda | la cómoda | la commode | il comò | -- | chest of drawers |
| a flauta | la flauta | la flûte | il flauto | [tibia] | flute |
| a flor | la flor | la fleur | il fiore | flos (m), G floris | flower |
| a régua | la regla | la règle | il regolo | regula | ruler (implement) |
|
a regra |
la regla |
la règle |
la regola |
regula |
rule, regulation |
| a crina | la crin | la crinière20 | il crine | crinis (m) | horse's mane |
| a podridão | la podredumbre | la pourriture | il putridume | putor (m) | rottenness, rotting material |
| a traição | la traición | la trahison | il tradimento | *traditio (f) | treason, betrayal |
| a médula | la médula | la moelle | il midollo | medulla | bone marrow |
| a bactéria | la bacteria | la bactérie | il batterio | -- | bacterium |
FFFA
| intervenção (f) | intervention (f) | intervención (f) | intervento (m), intervenzione (f) | *interventio, interventus, | intervention |
| coordenação (f) | coordinación (f) | coordination (f) | coordinamento (m)coordinazione (f)* | coordinatio | coordination |
| concentração (f) | concentración (f) | concentration (f) -- | concentrazione (f), concentramento (m)21 | -- | concentration |
| a frente | la frente | le front | il/la fronte | frons (f), G frontis | forehead |
|
o fronte |
el frente |
le front |
il fronte |
frons (f) |
front (pol., milit.) |
| a cinza | la ceniza | la cendre | il/la cenere22 | cinis (m/f), G cineris | ash (cinder) |
| a marca | la marca | la marque | la marca, il marchio | *marca | trademark |
|
a marca |
la marca |
la marque, [le repère] |
[segno] |
*marca |
mark, sign |
FMFM
| a cor | el color | la couleur | il colore | color (m) | color |
| a pistácea, [alfóstigo] | el pistacho | la pistache | il pistaccio | pistacium | pistachio |
MFMF
The only entry under this heading is the letters of the alphabet: a, b, c, d ...
| o a | la a | le a | la a | a | A (letter) |
However, the word for "letter (of the alphabet) is feminine in all 4 cases:
|
a letra |
la letra |
la lettre |
la lettera |
littera |
letter (of the alphabet) |
Note that a different root is used in Port. & Span. for "letter, missive."
|
a carta |
la carta |
la lettre |
la lettera |
litterae f.pl., [epistula] |
letter, missive |
MMFF
| o cigarro | el cigarro,23 el cigarrillo | la cigarette | la sigaretta | -- | cigarette |
| o cruzeiro | el crucero | la croisière | la crociera | -- | cruise |
| o pez | el pez | la poix | la pece | pix (f) | tar, pitch |
|
o peixe |
el pez, el pescado |
le poisson |
il pesce |
piscis (m) |
fish |
|
a pesca |
la pesca, la pesquería |
la pêche |
la pesca |
piscatus |
fishing |
|
o pêssego |
[durazno, el melocotón] |
la pêche |
la pesca |
persicum |
peach |
| o prefácio | el prefacio | la préface | la prefazione | prefaetio (f) | preface |
| o purê | el puré | la purée | la purea | -- | purée |
| o sofrimento | el sufrimiento | la souffrance | la sofferenza | [dolor] | suffering |
| o pavor, [+o medo] | el pavor, [+el miedo] | la peur | la paura | pavor (m) | fear |
| o êxtase | el éxtasis | extase (f) | estasi (f) | *extasis (m) | extasis |
| o oásis | el oasis | oase (f) | oasi (f) | -- | oasis |
| o banco | el banco | la banque | la banca | -- | bank (commercial) |
FFMM
| a conta | la cuenta | le compte | il conto | computum | account (financial) |
|
o conto24 |
el cuento |
le conte |
il racconto |
*computum |
story, narrative |
|
o conde |
el conde |
le compte |
il conte |
comites |
count (aristocrat) |
| a cabeça25 | la cabeza | le chef26, [+la tête], , | il capo, [+la testa]27 | caput (n) | head |
| o cabo | el cabo | le cap | il capo | caput (n) | cape (geogr.), various meanings |
| a couve | la col, [repollo] | le chou | il cavolo | caulis (m) | cabbage |
| a dúvida | la duda | le doute | il dubbio | dubium | doubt |
| a jóia | la joya | le joyau | il gioiello | *iocale (n) | jewel |
| a serpente | la serpiente | le serpent | il serpente | serpens (m/f) | snake |
| a taxa | la tasa | le taux | il tasso | taxa | rate, percentage |
| a taxa, [+imposto] |
[impuesto] |
la taxe, [impôt] |
la tassa, [imposta] |
taxa |
tax |
|
[xícara (Br.), chávena (Eur.), a taça28 |
la taza |
la tasse |
la tazza |
[poculum] |
cup |
| a víscera | la víscera | le viscère | il viscere | viscus (n), G visceris | inner organ |
| a afronta | la afrenta | l'affront (m) | il affronto | [contumelia] | affront, insult |
| a vacina | la vacuna | le vaccin | il vaccino | -- | vaccine |
| a taxa | la tasa | le taux | il tasso | [proportio] | rate |
MFFM
| o costume | la costumbre | la coutume | il costume | consuetudo (m) custom, habit | |
| o alarme | la alarma | alarme (f) | allarme (m) | [clamor] | alarm |
FMMF
| a cartilagem | el cartílago | le cartilage | la cartilagine | cartilago (f) | cartilage |
| a asma | el asma (f) | asthma (m) | asma (f) | asthma (n) | asthma |
AAMM
| antípodas (m/f), antípodes (m/f) | antípoda (m/f) | antipode (m) | il antipode | -- | antipodes |
FAFM
| a margem | el/la margen29 | la marge | il margine | margo (m/f) | edge, margin |
MAFF
| o dínamo | el/la dinamo30 | la dynamo | la dinamo | -- | dynamo, generator |
MAFM
| o calor | el/la calor31 | la chaleur | il calore | calor (m) | heat |
| o mar | el/la mar32 | la mer | il mare | mare (n) | sea |
| a rádio | el/la radio33 | la radio | la radio | -- | radio |
|
o rádio |
el radio |
le radium |
il ràdio |
-- |
radium |
|
o rádio |
el radio |
le radius |
il ràdio |
radius |
radius (anat.) |
|
o rádio, o raio |
el radio |
le rayon |
il raggio |
radium |
radius (geom.) |
|
o raio |
el rayo |
le rayon |
il raggio, [razza] |
radium |
spoke (wheel) |
|
o raio |
el rayo |
le rayon |
il raggio |
radium |
ray, beam |
Port. raio and Span. rayo also mean "lightning." French rayon also means "shelf," "department, section," "honeycomb" and "range, scope."
| o equívoco. [+erro, engano] | el equívoco, la equivocación | équivoque (f) [+erreur, faute] | equivoco (m), [+errore +sbaglio] | *aequivocum | mistake [+error] |
MMFA
| o dado | el dato | la donnée | il dato, | datum | datum, pl. |
| o fim | el fin, el final | la fin | il/la fine34 | finis (f) | end |
| o meteorito | el meteorito | la météorite | meteorite (m/f) -- | meteorite | |
| o lábio | el labio | la lèvre | il labbro, pl. le labbra | labrum, labium | lip |
FFMA
| a sobrancelha | la ceja35 | le sourcil | il sopracciglio, i sopraccigli, le sopracciglia | supercilium | eyebrow |
MAMF
| o arte | el arte, pl. las/los artes | art (m) | arte (f.) | ars (f) | art |
AMFA
| o renasci mento, a renascença | el renacimiento | la renaissance | la rinascita, il rinascimento | [novus ortus] | renaissance, rebirth |
FAMM
| a ordem | el/la orden36 | ordre (m) | ordine (m) | ordo (m) | order |
| a testemunha | el/la testigo | le témoin | il testimone | testis (m/f) | witness |
FAFF
| a partida | partido, partida37 | partie | partita | [certamen] | game, match |
FFAM
| a colher | la cuchara | le cuiller, la cuillère | il cucchiaio | cochlearium | spoon |
FAMF
| a maratona | el/la maratón | le marathon | la maratona | -- | marathon |
| a térmite, [o cupim] | la termita, el terme, [el comején] | le termite | la termite | termes (m), G termitis | termite |
MMAF
| o vale | el valle | la vallée, le val (lit.), le vallon (small valley) | la valle | vallis (f) | valley |
FMFA
| a opala | el ópalo | opale (f) | opale (m/f) | opalum | opal |
MAMA
| o til | el/la tilde | le tilde | il/la tilde | titulum | tilde (~) |
MMAA
| o grão | el grano | le grain, la graine | il grano, la grana | granum | seed, grain |
XMMF
| [macaco] | el simio, [+el mono] | le singe | la scimmia | simius | ape, monkey |
MFMX
| o breu, [+ o piche, o alcatrão] | la brea, [alquitrán] | le brai [+le goudron] | [il catrame] | -- | tar |
FFXM
| a lenha | la leña | [le bois] | il legno | lignum | wood [Port. & Sp. firewood] |
FMFX
| a omoplata | el omóplato | omoplate (f) | [scapola] | scapula | (bone) |
FMXF
| a mola | el muelle, [el resorte] | [le ressort] | la molla | --- | spring (elastic device) |
MMFX
| o nácar | el nácar | la nacre | [madreperla] | ? | mother of pearl |
| o mosquiteiro | el mosquiterola moustiquaire [zanzariera] | -- | -- | -- | mosquito netting |
XMFX
| [cacho] | el bucle | la boucle | [ricciolo] | -- | curl |
MFXX
| o pesadelo | la pesadilla | [le cauchemar] | [incubo] | [tumultuosum somnium] | nightmare |
| o queixume | la quejumbre | [gémissement] | [piagnucolio] | [querela] | whining |
XMFM
| [tâmara] | el dátil | la datte | il dattero | *dactylus | date (fruit) |
MFXM
| o cume [+cima; cúpula] | la cumbre | [le sommet] | il culmine | culmen (m) | peak, summit |
FXFA
| a data | [fecha] | la date |
la data, pl. i dati38 |
[dies] | date |
MXMA
| o cílio | [pestaña] | le cil | il ciglio, pl. le ciglia/i cigli | cilium | eyelash |
XMMA
| [carvalho] | el roble | le rouvre, [+le chêne] | il/la rovere, [+la quercia] | robur (n), [quercus (f)] | oak |
MFFX
| o rato | la rata | le rat | [topo] | [mus] | rat |
XFMM
| [trabalho] a lavoura39 | la labor, [+trabajo] | le labeur40, le labour41 [+le travail] | il lavoro | labor (m) | work |
XXMF
| [a manhã] | [la mañana] | le matin | la mattina | tempus matutinum | morning |
| -- | -- | le soir | la sera | [vesper] | evening |
Bibliography
Celso Cunha e Lindley Cintra : Breve gramática do português contemporâneo, Ed. João Sá da Costa, Lisboa 1985, pp. 146-151.
Ernesto d'Andrade: Dicionário inverso do português, Ed. Cosmos, Lisboa 1993, pp.306-309.
Ignacio Bosque y Manuel Pérez Fernández: Diccionario inverso de la lengua española, Ed. Gredos, Madrid 1987, passim.
Maurice Grevisse: Correct French. A Practical Guide, Barron's, Woodbury (NY) 1982, pp. 119-122.
Léon Warnant: Dictionnaire des rimes orales et écrites, Larousse, Paris 1992, pp. 455-467.
Maurizio Dardano e Pietro Trifone : La lingua italiana, Zanichelli, Bologna 1985, pp. 103-110, 117-119.
Emilio Renzi: Rimario pratico della lingua italiana d'oggi, Rizzoli, Milano 1990, passim.
Standard unilingual and bilingual dictionaries.
1 This preference for a given gender can be explained by 4.
2 It. legume is something of a false cognate: it means "pod; legumes, pulses [beans, peas, etc.], whereas its cognates mean principally "vegetable" in general.
3 It. legume is something of a false cognate: it means "pod; legumes, pulses [beans, peas, etc.], whereas its cognates mean principally "vegetable" in general.
4 If the sentry is a woman, la centinela is used.
5 Ital. il topo exists, but means "rat."
6 Port. la canalla, if the person in question is female.
7 Analogously to Span. centinela, it is possible to say la canalla, if the person in question is female.
8 Lat. armarium actually means "cupboard for weapons."
9 Port. óleo means any oil except petroleum and olive oil (Europe) or edible oil (Brazil); "petroleum" is petróleo and azeite is "olive oil" (Europe) or "edible oil" (Brazil).
10 Span. óleo means only oil paints and holy oil; "petroleum" is petróleo and all other oils are aceite.
11 Fr. la poulpe is a culinary term.
12 Fr. le période (rare) also exists with a different meaning.
13 Some Span.-speaking countries use visa, others visado.
14 Span. azúcar is usually masc.; only in writing is it considered fem.
15 Port. cifra is not an exact equivalent of its cognates, since it means "amount," not "digit."
16 Réseau is masculine no doubt because it is descended from the diminutive reticulum, instead of directly from rete. as are the other three cognates.
17 Lat. orchestra does not mean "orchestra" in the sense of a group of musicians, but only a part of a theatre. Latin for "orchestra" is symphonia.
18 Ital. il collare exists, meaning "choker."
19 Ital. cioccolata often means "cocoa" (a chocolate drink).
20 French le crin means "horse hair" (used for stuffing furniture).
21 Ital. concentrazione is the general term, and concentramento is used for "concentration camp" and "troop concentration."
22 Ital. cenere is fem. when it means "ashes" and masc. when it means "mortal remains."
23 In most Span.-speaking countries cigarro means cigarette, but in S. South America it can mean "cigar."
24 Port. o conto means (in addition to "story") also "one thousand escudos."
25 port. cabeça and Sp. cabeza are derived from the Lat. *capitia derived in turn from caput..
26 French chef and Ital. capo have ceased to mean "human head" and have various derived meanings.
27 Curiously enough, the modern Span. false cognate of Fr. tête and It. testa is el tiesto, which means "flower pot."
28 Port. a taça means "trophy cup."
29 Usually Span. margen is masc., except when it means "river-bank."
30 The gender of Span. dinamo (also pronounced dínamo) depends on the country.
31 Span. calor is usually masc. Treating it as feminine is usually rustic or dialectal.
32 Span. mar is usually masc. Only poets and sailors treat is as fem. However, the plural is always masc.
33 The gender of Span. radio depends on the country of origin of the speaker, but in both Spanish and Portuguese the masc. form is normally used for the apparatus, while the feminine denotes the station.
34 Ital. il fine means "purpose" and la fine means "conclusion."
35 Span. ceja is derived not from Lat. supercilium but from Lat. cilia, pl. of cilium, "eyebrow."
36 Span. orden is masc. when it means "arrangement" and fem. when it means "command" or "military order."
37 Sp. la partida is applied to games of chess and other board games, whereas el partido applies to sports. El partido also means "political party."
38 See note 7.
39 Port. a lavoura means "ploughing" or "farm."
40 Fr. la labour is a literary term for "work."
41 Fr. le labour means "plowing" (US) or "ploughing" (GB).